Total control: 5 mL/run
H2O2- transparent solution, odorless, colourless
10% H2O2 (Trial 1)
H202-0.5mL
H20-4.5mL
Start gas volume: 100 mL
Stop gas volume: 99 mL
Time: 60sec/1 min
* Every trials time is the same
Observation- started to fizz, bubbles also started to appear, gas is being produced, and foam is also produced.
30% H202 (Trial 2)
H202-1.5mL
H20-3.5mL
Start gas volume: 99 mL
Stop gas volume: 95 mL
Time: 60 sec/1 min
50% H2O2 (Trial 3)
H202-2.5mL
H20-2.5mL
Start gas volume: 250 mL
Stop gas volume: 95 mL (MAX)
Time: 60 sec/1 min
*more bubbles and foam are seen
70% H2O2 (Trial 4)
H202-3.5mL
H20-1.5mL
Start gas volume: 310 mL
Stop gas volume: 150 mL
Time: 60 sec/1 min
*Foam-whitish/orange bubbles were produced. Reaction was much faster and quicker than the last one
* There were 2 trial runs to get this result. The lid was not sealed properly, which may have affected the result greatly
90% H2O2 (Trial 5)
H202-2.5mL
H20-2.5mL
Start gas volume: 250 mL
Stop gas volume: 100 mL
Time: 60 sec/1 min
Source of error-
The measurement for extracting H2O2 & H202 may not have been accurate.
The lid was not sealed on properly as oxygen may have interfered with the experiment
The timing may have been wrong.
The disc (liver) may have been less then 5 or more than 5
Sunday, April 10, 2011
Subrate H2O2
Total control: 5 mL/run
H2O2- transparent solution, odorless, colourless
10% H2O2 (Trial 1)
H202-0.5mL
H20-4.5mL
Start gas volume: 100 mL
Stop gas volume: 99 mL
Time: 60sec/1 min
* Every trials time is the same
Observation- started to fizz, bubbles also started to appear, gas is being produced, and foam is also produced.
30% H202 (Trial 2)
H202-1.5mL
H20-3.5mL
Start gas volume: 99 mL
Stop gas volume: 95 mL
Time: 60 sec/1 min
50% H2O2 (Trial 3)
H202-2.5mL
H20-2.5mL
Start gas volume: 250 mL
Stop gas volume: 95 mL (MAX)
Time: 60 sec/1 min
*more bubbles and foam are seen
70% H2O2 (Trial 4)
H202-3.5mL
H20-1.5mL
Start gas volume: 310 mL
Stop gas volume: 150 mL
Time: 60 sec/1 min
*Foam-whitish/orange bubbles were produced. Reaction was much faster and quicker than the last one
* There were 2 trials run to get this result. The lid was not sealed properly, which may have affected the result greatly
90% H2O2 (Trial 5)
H202-2.5mL
H20-2.5mL
Start gas volume: 250 mL
Stop gas volume: 100 mL
Time: 60 sec/1 min
H2O2- transparent solution, odorless, colourless
10% H2O2 (Trial 1)
H202-0.5mL
H20-4.5mL
Start gas volume: 100 mL
Stop gas volume: 99 mL
Time: 60sec/1 min
* Every trials time is the same
Observation- started to fizz, bubbles also started to appear, gas is being produced, and foam is also produced.
30% H202 (Trial 2)
H202-1.5mL
H20-3.5mL
Start gas volume: 99 mL
Stop gas volume: 95 mL
Time: 60 sec/1 min
50% H2O2 (Trial 3)
H202-2.5mL
H20-2.5mL
Start gas volume: 250 mL
Stop gas volume: 95 mL (MAX)
Time: 60 sec/1 min
*more bubbles and foam are seen
70% H2O2 (Trial 4)
H202-3.5mL
H20-1.5mL
Start gas volume: 310 mL
Stop gas volume: 150 mL
Time: 60 sec/1 min
*Foam-whitish/orange bubbles were produced. Reaction was much faster and quicker than the last one
* There were 2 trials run to get this result. The lid was not sealed properly, which may have affected the result greatly
90% H2O2 (Trial 5)
H202-2.5mL
H20-2.5mL
Start gas volume: 250 mL
Stop gas volume: 100 mL
Time: 60 sec/1 min
Sunday, April 3, 2011
PCR vs Vector Cloning
Comparison of PCR Versus Gene Cloning
PCR-Polymerase Chain Reaction
The PCR is know to be a revolutionary technology.
(1) It is more efficient (as it needs much less amount of time to form the desired DNA; a single copy is enough)
(2) Does not require difficulty to store and costly restriction enzymes, ligase, and vector DNA, which reduces the cost drastically;
(3) PCR requires less work, time and skills needed to obtain desired DNA.
(4) Contains many more application then gene cloning. Typically, gene cloning experiments take 2-4 days, while PCR takes up to 4-5 hours. In addition,
(5) PCR is fully automated, while gene cloning is not. PCR does not require sequence information from the construction of primers and thermal cycler or PCR machine.
(6) PCR DOES NOT PRODUCE PROTEIN!
(7) Since PCR needs only one DNA segment of strands, if the strands is contaminated or replicated incompletely, the rest of the copies that are made will be damaged/corrupted as well.
8) Very useful during crimes and forensic investigation.
Vector Cloning
1) Takes a longer time to make the desired DNA
2) Requires DNA (EcoRI) and plasmid. Finding the gene of interest is needed also
3)Vector Cloning requires SPECIFIC RESTRICTION ENZYMES
4)The gene of interest is inserted into the plasmid in order to perform a recombinant DNA and produce desired protein.
5) Saves a lot more money.
Summarization of PCR vs Vector cloning
PCR is a considered to be a revolutionary technology. It is very efficient and saves a lot of times. It takes much less time to clone the desired DNA. Only a single copy of DNA is needed to make a desired copy of DNA
PCR saves more time and has many more useful applications than gene cloning.
PCR-Polymerase Chain Reaction
The PCR is know to be a revolutionary technology.
(1) It is more efficient (as it needs much less amount of time to form the desired DNA; a single copy is enough)
(2) Does not require difficulty to store and costly restriction enzymes, ligase, and vector DNA, which reduces the cost drastically;
(3) PCR requires less work, time and skills needed to obtain desired DNA.
(4) Contains many more application then gene cloning. Typically, gene cloning experiments take 2-4 days, while PCR takes up to 4-5 hours. In addition,
(5) PCR is fully automated, while gene cloning is not. PCR does not require sequence information from the construction of primers and thermal cycler or PCR machine.
(6) PCR DOES NOT PRODUCE PROTEIN!
(7) Since PCR needs only one DNA segment of strands, if the strands is contaminated or replicated incompletely, the rest of the copies that are made will be damaged/corrupted as well.
8) Very useful during crimes and forensic investigation.
Vector Cloning
1) Takes a longer time to make the desired DNA
2) Requires DNA (EcoRI) and plasmid. Finding the gene of interest is needed also
3)Vector Cloning requires SPECIFIC RESTRICTION ENZYMES
4)The gene of interest is inserted into the plasmid in order to perform a recombinant DNA and produce desired protein.
5) Saves a lot more money.
Summarization of PCR vs Vector cloning
PCR is a considered to be a revolutionary technology. It is very efficient and saves a lot of times. It takes much less time to clone the desired DNA. Only a single copy of DNA is needed to make a desired copy of DNA
PCR saves more time and has many more useful applications than gene cloning.
Monday, February 21, 2011
DNA! why do you have to replicate?!
DNA replication, Huh it's confusing but its true, they do duplicate themselves to make another copy of themselves.
Initiation
1. Helicase- untwists and seperate DNA template
2. Single Strand binding protein- Keeping unpaired template strands during replications
3. Gyrase- Massages the DNA, (if you call it) basically it releases the tension that DNA has and cuts off DNA.
4. RNA Primase-Signal DNA Polymerase III of primes
Elongation
1. Polymerase III Polymerase is a DNA that recognizes the RNA primers which unqizps the DNA strand and elongate new DNA strands.
5'---> 3'
Termination
1. Polymerase I- Big brother comes and checks the process, if elongation is succesful.
Replaces RNA primers with DNA
-responsible of grabbing nucleotids (AT, & CG)
Lygase- Glue the gaps in DNA
Than the whole cycle is started and automatic twisting
Initiation
1. Helicase- untwists and seperate DNA template
2. Single Strand binding protein- Keeping unpaired template strands during replications
3. Gyrase- Massages the DNA, (if you call it) basically it releases the tension that DNA has and cuts off DNA.
4. RNA Primase-Signal DNA Polymerase III of primes
Elongation
1. Polymerase III Polymerase is a DNA that recognizes the RNA primers which unqizps the DNA strand and elongate new DNA strands.
5'---> 3'
Termination
1. Polymerase I- Big brother comes and checks the process, if elongation is succesful.
Replaces RNA primers with DNA
-responsible of grabbing nucleotids (AT, & CG)
Lygase- Glue the gaps in DNA
Than the whole cycle is started and automatic twisting
10 things we thought we knew about genetics
Interphase
Before a cell can enter cell division, it needs to prepare itself by replicating its genetic information and all of the organelles. All of the preparations are done during the interphase. Interphase proceeds in three stages, G1, S, and G2. Cell division operates in a cycle. Therefore, interphase is preceded by the previous cycle of mitosis and cytokenesis.
Prophase
• Chromosomes become more coiled and can be viewed under a light microscope.
• Each duplicated chromosome is seen as a pair of sister chromatids joined by the duplicated but unseparated centromere.
• The nucleolus disappears during prophase.
• In the cytoplasm, the mitotic spindle, consisting of microtubules and other proteins, forms between the two pairs of centrioles as they migrate to opposite poles of the cell.
• The nuclear envelope disappears at the end of prophase. This signals the beginning of the substage called prometaphase.
Metaphase
The chromosomes become arranged on the metaphase plate and are attached to the now fully formed spindle.
•The centrosomes are at opposite poles of the cell.
• The chromosomes, now at their most highly coiled and condensed, become arranged on a plane equidistant from the two poles called the metaphase plate.
• For each chromosome, the kinetochores of the sister chromatids face the opposite poles, and each is attached to a kinetochore microtubule coming from that pole.
Homologous chromosomes
Exchange of genes between homologous chromosomes is known as crossing over, or chromosomal crossover. This exchange of genetic material occurs during the prophase stage, one of the different stages in the process of meiosis or cell division. It involves the exchange of gene alleles from one chromosome, with the alternative allele on a corresponding homologous chromosome. This results in a crossover chromosome, or a recombinant chromosome which contains a combination of alleles present on the original or parent chromosomes.
Chromosomes
Each biological cell contains a nucleus in which an organized structure of DNA and protein, combine to form a chromosome. Chromosomes are the structures that contain genes.
Meiosis 1
Before a dividing cell enters meiosis, it undergoes a period of growth called Interphase. It is the longest phase in the cell cycle. In this phase , the genetic material is duplicated. Interphase is followed by meiosis I and then meiosis II.
In meiosis I, the number of cells is doubled but the number of chromosomes is not. This results in 1/2 as many chromosomes per cell.
Meiosis I consists of the following stages : prophase 1, metaphase 1, anaphase 1, and telophase 1.
Meiosis 2
Meiosis 2 is the second part of the meiotic process. Much of the process is similar to mitosis. The end result is production of four haploid cells from the two haploid cells.
The four main steps of Meiosis 2 are: Prophase 2, Metaphase 2, Anaphase 2, and Telophase 2.
1. PROPHASE 2 - In this stage, the nuclear membrane and nuclei break up while the spindle network appears.The chromosomes do not replicate any further in this phase of meiosis.
2. METAPHASE 2 - In this stage ,the chromosomes align at the equatorial plate.The kinetochores of the sister chromatids point toward opposite poles.
3. ANAPHASE 2 - In this stage , the centromeres divide and sister chromatids separate and move toward the opposite cell poles.
4. TELOPHASE 2 - In this phase, Distinct nuclei are formed at the opposite poles. Nuclear envelopes reform and cell wall formation eventually produces a total of four daughter cells. This results in completion of the cell division.
At the end of meiosis II, there are four daughter cells each with one half the number of chromosomes of the original parent cell.
Mitosis
Mitosis is a process of cell division which results in the production of two daughter cells from a single parent cell. The daughter cells are identical to one another and to the original parent cell.
4 Phases-Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase.
Elements
Elements are substances that cannot be broken down into simpler substances. Salt is made up of the elements sodium and chloride. Water is made up of the elements hydrogen and oxygen.
Compound
A compound is a substance formed when two or more elements are chemically joined. Water, salt, and sugar are examples of compounds. When the elements are joined, the atoms lose their individual properties and have different properties from the elements they are composed of. A chemical formula is used a quick way to show the composition of compounds. Letters, numbers, and symbols are used to represent elements and the number of elements in each compound.
Before a cell can enter cell division, it needs to prepare itself by replicating its genetic information and all of the organelles. All of the preparations are done during the interphase. Interphase proceeds in three stages, G1, S, and G2. Cell division operates in a cycle. Therefore, interphase is preceded by the previous cycle of mitosis and cytokenesis.
Prophase
• Chromosomes become more coiled and can be viewed under a light microscope.
• Each duplicated chromosome is seen as a pair of sister chromatids joined by the duplicated but unseparated centromere.
• The nucleolus disappears during prophase.
• In the cytoplasm, the mitotic spindle, consisting of microtubules and other proteins, forms between the two pairs of centrioles as they migrate to opposite poles of the cell.
• The nuclear envelope disappears at the end of prophase. This signals the beginning of the substage called prometaphase.
Metaphase
The chromosomes become arranged on the metaphase plate and are attached to the now fully formed spindle.
•The centrosomes are at opposite poles of the cell.
• The chromosomes, now at their most highly coiled and condensed, become arranged on a plane equidistant from the two poles called the metaphase plate.
• For each chromosome, the kinetochores of the sister chromatids face the opposite poles, and each is attached to a kinetochore microtubule coming from that pole.
Homologous chromosomes
Exchange of genes between homologous chromosomes is known as crossing over, or chromosomal crossover. This exchange of genetic material occurs during the prophase stage, one of the different stages in the process of meiosis or cell division. It involves the exchange of gene alleles from one chromosome, with the alternative allele on a corresponding homologous chromosome. This results in a crossover chromosome, or a recombinant chromosome which contains a combination of alleles present on the original or parent chromosomes.
Chromosomes
Each biological cell contains a nucleus in which an organized structure of DNA and protein, combine to form a chromosome. Chromosomes are the structures that contain genes.
Meiosis 1
Before a dividing cell enters meiosis, it undergoes a period of growth called Interphase. It is the longest phase in the cell cycle. In this phase , the genetic material is duplicated. Interphase is followed by meiosis I and then meiosis II.
In meiosis I, the number of cells is doubled but the number of chromosomes is not. This results in 1/2 as many chromosomes per cell.
Meiosis I consists of the following stages : prophase 1, metaphase 1, anaphase 1, and telophase 1.
Meiosis 2
Meiosis 2 is the second part of the meiotic process. Much of the process is similar to mitosis. The end result is production of four haploid cells from the two haploid cells.
The four main steps of Meiosis 2 are: Prophase 2, Metaphase 2, Anaphase 2, and Telophase 2.
1. PROPHASE 2 - In this stage, the nuclear membrane and nuclei break up while the spindle network appears.The chromosomes do not replicate any further in this phase of meiosis.
2. METAPHASE 2 - In this stage ,the chromosomes align at the equatorial plate.The kinetochores of the sister chromatids point toward opposite poles.
3. ANAPHASE 2 - In this stage , the centromeres divide and sister chromatids separate and move toward the opposite cell poles.
4. TELOPHASE 2 - In this phase, Distinct nuclei are formed at the opposite poles. Nuclear envelopes reform and cell wall formation eventually produces a total of four daughter cells. This results in completion of the cell division.
At the end of meiosis II, there are four daughter cells each with one half the number of chromosomes of the original parent cell.
Mitosis
Mitosis is a process of cell division which results in the production of two daughter cells from a single parent cell. The daughter cells are identical to one another and to the original parent cell.
4 Phases-Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase.
Elements
Elements are substances that cannot be broken down into simpler substances. Salt is made up of the elements sodium and chloride. Water is made up of the elements hydrogen and oxygen.
Compound
A compound is a substance formed when two or more elements are chemically joined. Water, salt, and sugar are examples of compounds. When the elements are joined, the atoms lose their individual properties and have different properties from the elements they are composed of. A chemical formula is used a quick way to show the composition of compounds. Letters, numbers, and symbols are used to represent elements and the number of elements in each compound.
Genetics? Who discovered what
Erwin Chargaff’s Rules
During the late 1900s, (app. 1950) Erwin Chargaff analysed the basic composition of DNA composition with the experiment on several different number of organisms. From his research, he reported that DNA composition varies from one species to another. The evidence he conducted of molecular diversity was presumed to be absent absent from DNA, which made DNA a more credible candidate for the genetic material than protein.
Chargaff's rules
Chargaff found that a peculiar regularity in the ratios of nucleotide bases. In the DNA of each species he studies, the number of adenines approximately equaled the number of thymine, and the number of guanines approximately equaled the number of cytosine. In human DNA, for example, the four bases are present in these percentages: A=30.9% and T=29.4%; G=19.9% and C=19.8%. The A=T and G=C equalities, later known as Chargaff's rules, helped Watson and Crick to discover the structure of DNA.
Watson and Crick Discovered the Structure of DNA
In 1950s, every scientists wanted to get their name on the paper- they were dying to discover DNA. During 1953, James D. Watson and Francis H.C. Crick published a paper in which they proposed a model for the physical and chemical structure of the DNA molecule. From this discovery Watson and Crick discovered that, most DNA consists of two polynucleotide chains that wound around each other in a right-handed (clockwise) helix.
In generating their model, Watson and Crick used three main pieces of evidence:
1. The DNA molecule contains 3 of the important bases, sugars (Deoxyribonucleic), nucleotides and phosphate groups (groups of phosphate chains).
2. Chargaff's rules says that in any organism, amount of A=T and C=G.
3. Rosalind Franklin, who had taken a X-ray picture of DNA, calculated that DNA was a helical structure which had two distinctive regularities of 0.34nm along the axis of the molecule.
During the late 1900s, (app. 1950) Erwin Chargaff analysed the basic composition of DNA composition with the experiment on several different number of organisms. From his research, he reported that DNA composition varies from one species to another. The evidence he conducted of molecular diversity was presumed to be absent absent from DNA, which made DNA a more credible candidate for the genetic material than protein.
Chargaff's rules
Chargaff found that a peculiar regularity in the ratios of nucleotide bases. In the DNA of each species he studies, the number of adenines approximately equaled the number of thymine, and the number of guanines approximately equaled the number of cytosine. In human DNA, for example, the four bases are present in these percentages: A=30.9% and T=29.4%; G=19.9% and C=19.8%. The A=T and G=C equalities, later known as Chargaff's rules, helped Watson and Crick to discover the structure of DNA.
Watson and Crick Discovered the Structure of DNA
In 1950s, every scientists wanted to get their name on the paper- they were dying to discover DNA. During 1953, James D. Watson and Francis H.C. Crick published a paper in which they proposed a model for the physical and chemical structure of the DNA molecule. From this discovery Watson and Crick discovered that, most DNA consists of two polynucleotide chains that wound around each other in a right-handed (clockwise) helix.
In generating their model, Watson and Crick used three main pieces of evidence:
1. The DNA molecule contains 3 of the important bases, sugars (Deoxyribonucleic), nucleotides and phosphate groups (groups of phosphate chains).
2. Chargaff's rules says that in any organism, amount of A=T and C=G.
3. Rosalind Franklin, who had taken a X-ray picture of DNA, calculated that DNA was a helical structure which had two distinctive regularities of 0.34nm along the axis of the molecule.
My Isu Ideas
My Isu Ideas
Hmm, the annual science fair that always leaves people in shock and wonder. My mind seems to go blank every time I try to think of a new topic. Like why can’t we just have those normal assignments where the teacher assigns a student? I guess it’s cause we go to a school known as A.Y where we are good at following instruction, or this science fair is suppose to prepare us for university.
1) Several Ideas have come up to me: During the afternoon of a Sunday art class, I was working with paints. As you can see, there are different types of paints. For example, acrylic, oil, water etc. I was thinking of wither I can conduct an experiment with these types of paint to see which one has the most toxicity. The experiments will determine which paint has the most harmful cause to the environment and which one is “eco-friendly.”
2) Which is better, washing your hands with soaps or hand soaps? In addition, which brand gives the best quality when it comes to killing germs?
3) What types of food allow mould to grow the fastest?
Purpose: To demonstrate that bread mould spores are present anywhere and everywhere
________________________________________
4) Can earphones and headphones affect the way we hear? Which is better or worse?
5) Corrosiveness of Soda’s
Purpose: To determine which type of soft drink is the most corrosive – this will help determine which type of soft drink is most harmful to tooth enamel.
________________________________________
6) Fruit Battery Power
Purpose: To demonstrate how an electrical current can be generated using citrus fruits (such as lemons or limes) that is strong enough to power a small light bulb
Hmm, the annual science fair that always leaves people in shock and wonder. My mind seems to go blank every time I try to think of a new topic. Like why can’t we just have those normal assignments where the teacher assigns a student? I guess it’s cause we go to a school known as A.Y where we are good at following instruction, or this science fair is suppose to prepare us for university.
1) Several Ideas have come up to me: During the afternoon of a Sunday art class, I was working with paints. As you can see, there are different types of paints. For example, acrylic, oil, water etc. I was thinking of wither I can conduct an experiment with these types of paint to see which one has the most toxicity. The experiments will determine which paint has the most harmful cause to the environment and which one is “eco-friendly.”
2) Which is better, washing your hands with soaps or hand soaps? In addition, which brand gives the best quality when it comes to killing germs?
3) What types of food allow mould to grow the fastest?
Purpose: To demonstrate that bread mould spores are present anywhere and everywhere
________________________________________
4) Can earphones and headphones affect the way we hear? Which is better or worse?
5) Corrosiveness of Soda’s
Purpose: To determine which type of soft drink is the most corrosive – this will help determine which type of soft drink is most harmful to tooth enamel.
________________________________________
6) Fruit Battery Power
Purpose: To demonstrate how an electrical current can be generated using citrus fruits (such as lemons or limes) that is strong enough to power a small light bulb
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